Notes from the lower layers.

Long-form writing on the EVM, zero-knowledge systems, and the security of smart contracts. New essays most months.

Aug 2026 · 13 min read

Perfect Secrecy: Why the Ultimate Cipher is Useless

Shannon formalised what it means for a secret to be perfectly kept. The one-time pad achieves it, and its cost explains why modern cryptography settled for less.

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Latest

Dec 2024 · 8 min read

The Role of Account Abstraction in Ethereum's Evolution

Why Ethereum accounts work the way they do, what smart accounts change, and how paying gas in any token becomes possible.

Feb 2024 · 3 min read

Implementing a Custom ERC-20 Token Smart Contract with Solidity

The fungible token standard implemented by hand: the six mandatory functions and the promises each one makes.

Feb 2024 · 2 min read

ERC721: Digital Collectibles on Ethereum

What makes a token non-fungible, how ownership is tracked, and shipping your first NFT with OpenZeppelin and IPFS.